Journal of Advanced Materials and Technologies

Journal of Advanced Materials and Technologies

Investigation of the Synergetic effect of Acidic Pre-Treatment and Mechanochemical Method on Lithium Recovery Efficiency from NCM811 Cathodes

Document Type : Original Reaearch Article

Authors
Arvin Attari Navab 1, 2
Reza Riahifar 2, 3
Babak Raissi Dehkordi 2, 4
Alireza Aghaei 5
Maziar Sahba Yaghmaee 2, 6
1 Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Materials & Energy Research Center, Alborz, Iran.
2 R&D Center, Parthian Battery Novin Co. Ltd, Tehran, Iran.
3 Associate Professor, Department of Nano-technology and Advanced Materials, Materials & Energy Research Center, Alborz, Iran.
4 Professor, Department of Nano-technology and Advanced Materials, Materials & Energy Research Center, Karaj, Iran.
5 Assistant Professor, Department of Nano-technology and Advanced Materials, Materials & Energy Research Center, Alborz, Iran.
6 Associate Professor, Department of Ceramic, Materials and Energy Research Center, Karaj, Iran.
10.30501/jamt.2025.547364.1339
Abstract
The rising global demand for lithium, particularly for lithium-ion batteries, necessitates efficient recovery methods from secondary sources. This study investigated the effect of short-term acid leaching pretreatment on mechanochemical lithium extraction from spent NCM811 cathodes. Three acid systems—HCl, H2SO4 with 4% vol. H2O2, and CH3COOH with 4% vol. H2O2—were tested, along with co-grinding milling powders (NaCl and SiO2). Pretreatment with H2SO4 and 4% vol. H2O2 initially reduced extraction efficiency due to the formation of a stable oxide layer; however, with extended milling and a higher ball-to-powder ratio (40:1), lithium recovery reached approximately 94%. HCl exhibited concentration-dependent effects, with 2 M HCl yielding over 89% recovery after 9 hours, while 1 M HCl resulted in lower performance. Acetic acid produced the lowest recovery (~72%) due to its weak acidity and limited oxidation strength. These findings demonstrate that combining short-term acid pretreatment with mechanochemical processing substantially enhances lithium recovery efficiency, offering a promising and scalable strategy for sustainable recycling of lithium from spent batteries.
Keywords
Lithium Recovery
Mechanochemistry
Acid Pre-Leaching
NCM811 Cathodes
Mechanical Milling

Subjects

1.       Aregai, G. T., Babu, K. V., Babu, B. V., Rao, P. S. V. S., & Veeraiah, V. (2019). Structural, electrical and electrochemical studies of copper substituted layered LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode materials. South African Journal of Chemical Engineering, 27, 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajce.2018.12.004
2.       Attari Navab, A., Riahifar, R., Dehkordi, B. R., Aghaei, A., & Yaghmaee, M. S. (2025). Synergistic lithium liberation: coupling thermal shock with mechanochemical activation for ultra-efficient cathode recycling. Materials Letters, 402, 139353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2025.139353
3.       Bruno, M., & Fiore, S. (2023). Material Flow Analysis of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling in Europe: Environmental and Economic Implications. Batteries, 9(4), 231. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040231
4.       Chen, X., Fan, B., Xu, L., Zhou, T., & Kong, J. (2016). An atom-economic process for the recovery of high value-added metals from spent lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112, 3562-3570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.10.132
5.       Ding, Z., Li, J., Huang, Y., Lin, H., Wei, P., Li, J., Zhuge, X., Yang, Z., Qu, K., & Ren, Y. (2025). Closing the Loop on Lithium-Ion Battery Cathodes: A Green Electrometallurgical Recycling Approach. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 13(4), 1570-1581. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.4c07920
6.       Dobrynina, T. A., Akhapkina, N. A., & Chuvaev, V. F. (1969). Synthesis and properties of lithium peroxide monoperoxyhydrate Li2O2· H2O2. Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Division of chemical science, 18(3), 438-440. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00906954
7.       Dolotko, O., Gehrke, N., Malliaridou, T., Sieweck, R., Herrmann, L., Hunzinger, B., ... & Ehrenberg, H. (2023). Universal and efficient extraction of lithium for lithium-ion battery recycling using mechanochemistry. Communications Chemistry, 6(1), 49. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42004-023-00844-2
8.       Eum, D., Jang, H. Y., Kim, B., Chung, J., Kim, D., Cho, S. P., Song, S. H., Kang, S., Yu, S., Park, S. O., Song, J. H., Kim, H., Tamwattana, O., Kim, D. H., Lim, J., & Kang, K. (2023). Effects of cation superstructure ordering on oxygen redox stability in O2-type lithium-rich layered oxides. Energy & Environmental Science, 16(2), 673-686. https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ee03527h
9.       Gao, W., Song, J., Cao, H., Lin, X., Zhang, X., Zheng, X., Zhang, Y., & Sun, Z. (2018). Selective recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries–Process development and kinetics evaluation. Journal of Cleaner Production, 178, 833-845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.040
10.     Gilligan, R., O’Malley, G. P., & Nikoloski, A. N. (2025). The Leaching of Valuable Metals (Li, Co, Ni, Mn, Cu) from Black Mass from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries. Metals, 15. (10), 1155. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15101155
11.     Goni, L. K. M. O., Bano, A., & Jafar Mazumder, M. A. (2025). Corrosion of metals by acetic acid: Mechanistic insights, industrial implications, and remediation approaches. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 437, 128326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2025.128326
12.     Gu, H., Li, W., Li, Z., Guo, T., Wen, H., & Wang, N. (2020). Leaching Behavior of Lithium from Bauxite Residue Using Acetic Acid. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration, 37(2), 443-451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-020-00181-1
13.     He, L. P., Sun, S. Y., Mu, Y. Y., Song, X.-F., & Yu, J. G. (2017). Recovery of Lithium, Nickel, Cobalt, and Manganese from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries Using L-Tartaric Acid as a Leachant. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 5(1), 714-721. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b02056
14.     Kasri, M. A., Halizan, M. Z. M., Harun, I., Bahrudin, F. I., Daud, N., Aizamddin, M. F., ... & Mahat, M. M. (2024). Addressing preliminary challenges in upscaling the recovery of lithium from spent lithium ion batteries by the electrochemical method: a review. RSC Advances, 14(22), 15515-15541. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4RA00972J
15.     Kaunda, R. B. (2020). Potential environmental impacts of lithium mining. Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law, 38(3), 237-244. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646811.2020.1754596
16.     Liu, K., Liu, L., Tan, Q., & Li, J. (2021). Selective extraction of lithium from a spent lithium iron phosphate battery by mechanochemical solid-phase oxidation. Green Chemistry, 23(3), 1344-1352. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0gc03683h
17.     Lee, C. K., & Rhee, K. I. (2003). Reductive leaching of cathodic active materials from lithium ion battery wastes. Hydrometallurgy, 68(1-3), 5-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-386X(02)00167-6
18.     Mata, M., & Hlaváček, P. (2024). Lithium Mining as a Tool for Economic and Energy Transformation of Region: Reflections on Policies, Processes and Communities. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 14(6), 46-54. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.17052
19.     Musariri, B., Akdogan, G., Dorfling, C., & Bradshaw, S. (2019). Evaluating organic acids as alternative leaching reagents for metal recovery from lithium ion batteries. Minerals Engineering, 137, 108-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2019.03.027
20.     Nadimi, H., & Jalalian Karazmoudeh, N. (2020). Leaching of Co, Mn and Ni Using H2O2 in Sulfuric Acid Medium from Mobile Phone LIBs. Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series D, 101(1), 111-116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40033-020-00221-6
21.     Partinen, J., Halli, P., Wilson, B. P., & Lundström, M. (2023). The impact of chlorides on NMC leaching in hydrometallurgical battery recycling. Minerals Engineering, 202, 108244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2023.108244
22.     Periasamy, P., Kalaiselvi, N., & Kim, H. S. (2007). High Voltage and High Capacity Characteristics of LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 Cathode for Lithium Battery Applications. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 2(9), 68 689-699.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S1452-3981(23)17105-7
23.     Prziwara, P., Hamilton, L. D., Breitung-Faes, S., & Kwade, A. (2018). Impact of grinding aids and process parameters on dry stirred media milling. Powder Technology, 335, 114-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2018.05.021
24.     Rowlands, S. A., Hall, A. K., McCormick, P. G., Street, R., Hart, R. J., Ebell, G. F., & Donecker, P. (1994). Destruction of toxic materials. Nature, 367(6460), 223-223. https://doi.org/10.1038/367223a0
25.     Ruberti, M. (2024). Pathways to greener primary lithium extraction for a really sustainable energy transition: Environmental challenges and pioneering innovations. Sustainability, 17(1), 160. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010160
26.     Salari, H. (2021). Optimization Study of Nickel Leaching from Used Catalysts and Investigation of Nickel Separation by Precipitation. Journal of Advanced Materials and Technologies, 9(4), 71-77. https://doi.org/10.30501/jamt.2020.232659.1093
27.     Shafagati, M., Babapoor, A., & Bamdezh, M. (2024). Enhancing Car Battery Energy Efficiency with Phase Change Material Nanocomposites: A Concise Review. Journal of Renewable Energy and Environment, 11(1), 74-88. https://doi.org/10.30501/jree.2023.388891.1563
28.     Sun, L., & Qiu, K. (2011). Vacuum pyrolysis and hydrometallurgical process for the recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 194, 378-384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.07.114
29.     Takacova, Z., Havlik, T., Kukurugya, F., & Orac, D. (2016). Cobalt and lithium recovery from active mass of spent Li-ion batteries: Theoretical and experimental approach. Hydrometallurgy, 163, 9-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2016.03.007
30.     Tyunina, M., Levoska, J., Pacherova, O., Kocourek, T., & Dejneka, A. (2022). Strain enhancement due to oxygen vacancies in perovskite oxide films. Journal of Materials Chemistry C, 10(17), 6770-6777. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1TC04969K
31.     Vieceli, N., Benjamasutin, P., Promphan, R., Hellstrom, P., Paulsson, M., & Petranikova, M. (2023). Recycling of lithium-ion batteries: effect of hydrogen peroxide and a dosing method on the leaching of LCO, NMC oxides, and industrial black mass. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 11(26), 9662-9673. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c01238
32.     Wang, K., Zhang, G., & Luo, M. (2022a). Recovery of Valuable Metals from Cathode—Anode Mixed Materials of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Organic Acids. Separations, 9(9), 259. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations9090259
33.     Wang, M., Liu, K., Yu, J., Zhang, C.-C., Zhang, Z., & Tan, Q. (2022b). Recycling spent lithium-ion batteries using a mechanochemical approach. Circular Economy, 1(2), 100012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cec.2022.100012
34.     Wang, M., Tan, Q., & Li, J. (2018). Unveiling the Role and Mechanism of Mechanochemical Activation on Lithium Cobalt Oxide Powders from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(22), 13136-13143. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b03469
35.     Wang, M., Tan, Q., Liu, L., & Li, J. (2021). Selective regeneration of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries using ionic substitution stimulated by mechanochemistry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 279, 123612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123612
36.     Wu, J., Xiao, L., Shen, L., Ran, J. J., Zhong, H., Zhu, Y. R., & Chen, H. (2024). Recent advancements in hydrometallurgical recycling technologies of spent lithium-ion battery cathode materials. Rare Metals, 43(3), 879-899. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12598-023-02437-3
37.     Xuan, W., de Souza Braga, A., & Chagnes, A. (2021a). Development of a Novel Solvent Extraction Process to Recover Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese, and Lithium from Cathodic Materials of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 10(1), 582-593. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c07109
38.     Xuan, W., de Souza Braga, A., Korbel, C., & Chagnes, A. (2021b). New insights in the leaching kinetics of cathodic materials in acidic chloride media for lithium-ion battery recycling. Hydrometallurgy, 204, 105705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2021.105705
39.     Xuan, W., Otsuki, A., & Chagnes, A. (2019). Investigation of the leaching mechanism of NMC 811 (LiNi 0.8 Mn 0.1 Co 0.1 O2) by hydrochloric acid for recycling lithium ion battery cathodes [10.1039/C9RA06686A]. RSC Advances, 9(66), 38612-38618. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9RA06686A
40.     Yang, K., Zhu, C., Li, J., Meng, B., Zhong, K., Huang, W., Yu, J., & Fang, Z. (2023). Electric field-assisted leaching of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries in a mixture of acetic acid and ascorbic acid. Hydrometallurgy, 221, 106152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2023.106152
41.     Yang, Y. N., Li, Y. X., Li, Y. Q., & Zhang, T. (2020). On-surface lithium donor reaction enables decarbonated lithium garnets and compatible interfaces within cathodes. Nature Communications, 11(1), 5519. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19417-1
42.     Yao, L., Yao, H., Xi, G., & Feng, Y. (2016). Recycling and synthesis of LiNi 1/3 Co 1/3 Mn 1/3 O 2 from waste lithium ion batteries using d, l-malic acid. Rsc Advances, 6(22), 17947-17954. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA25079J
43.     Yao, Y., Zhu, M., Zhao, Z., Tong, B., Fan, Y., & Hua, Z. (2018). Hydrometallurgical Processes for Recycling Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Critical Review. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 6(11), 13611-13627. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b03545
44.     Yi, A. F., Zhu, Z. W., Liu, Y. H., Zhang, J., Su, H., & Qi, T. (2021). Using highly concentrated chloride solutions to leach valuable metals from cathode-active materials in spent lithium-ion batteries. Rare Metals, 40(7), 1971-1978. https://doi.org/101007/s12598-020-01503-4
45.     Yu, H., So, Y. G., Kuwabara, A., Tochigi, E., Shibata, N., Kudo, T., ... & Ikuhara, Y. (2016). Crystalline grain interior configuration affects lithium migration kinetics in Li-rich layered oxide. Nano letters, 16(5), 2907-2915. https://doi.org/10.1149/ma2016-03/2/879
46.     Zhang, J., Ding, Y., Shi, H., Shao, P., Yuan, X., Hu, X., ... & Luo, X. (2024). Selective recycling of lithium from spent LiNixCoyMn1-x-yO2 cathode via constructing a synergistic leaching environment. Journal of Environmental Management, 352, 120021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120021
47.     Zhao, Q., Sun, K., Wang, X., Wang, Q., & Wang, J. (2024). Examining green-sustainable approaches for recycling of lithium-ion batteries. DeCarbon, 3, 100034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.decarb.2023.100034
1.       Aregai, G. T., Babu, K. V., Babu, B. V., Rao, P. S. V. S., & Veeraiah, V. (2019). Structural, electrical and electrochemical studies of copper substituted layered LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode materials. South African Journal of Chemical Engineering, 27, 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajce.2018.12.004
2.       Attari Navab, A., Riahifar, R., Dehkordi, B. R., Aghaei, A., & Yaghmaee, M. S. (2025). Synergistic lithium liberation: coupling thermal shock with mechanochemical activation for ultra-efficient cathode recycling. Materials Letters, 402, 139353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2025.139353
3.       Bruno, M., & Fiore, S. (2023). Material Flow Analysis of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling in Europe: Environmental and Economic Implications. Batteries, 9(4), 231. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9040231
4.       Chen, X., Fan, B., Xu, L., Zhou, T., & Kong, J. (2016). An atom-economic process for the recovery of high value-added metals from spent lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112, 3562-3570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.10.132
5.       Ding, Z., Li, J., Huang, Y., Lin, H., Wei, P., Li, J., Zhuge, X., Yang, Z., Qu, K., & Ren, Y. (2025). Closing the Loop on Lithium-Ion Battery Cathodes: A Green Electrometallurgical Recycling Approach. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 13(4), 1570-1581. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.4c07920
6.       Dobrynina, T. A., Akhapkina, N. A., & Chuvaev, V. F. (1969). Synthesis and properties of lithium peroxide monoperoxyhydrate Li2O2· H2O2. Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Division of chemical science, 18(3), 438-440. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00906954
7.       Dolotko, O., Gehrke, N., Malliaridou, T., Sieweck, R., Herrmann, L., Hunzinger, B., ... & Ehrenberg, H. (2023). Universal and efficient extraction of lithium for lithium-ion battery recycling using mechanochemistry. Communications Chemistry, 6(1), 49. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42004-023-00844-2
8.       Eum, D., Jang, H. Y., Kim, B., Chung, J., Kim, D., Cho, S. P., Song, S. H., Kang, S., Yu, S., Park, S. O., Song, J. H., Kim, H., Tamwattana, O., Kim, D. H., Lim, J., & Kang, K. (2023). Effects of cation superstructure ordering on oxygen redox stability in O2-type lithium-rich layered oxides. Energy & Environmental Science, 16(2), 673-686. https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ee03527h
9.       Gao, W., Song, J., Cao, H., Lin, X., Zhang, X., Zheng, X., Zhang, Y., & Sun, Z. (2018). Selective recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries–Process development and kinetics evaluation. Journal of Cleaner Production, 178, 833-845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.040
10.     Gilligan, R., O’Malley, G. P., & Nikoloski, A. N. (2025). The Leaching of Valuable Metals (Li, Co, Ni, Mn, Cu) from Black Mass from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries. Metals, 15. (10), 1155. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15101155
11.     Goni, L. K. M. O., Bano, A., & Jafar Mazumder, M. A. (2025). Corrosion of metals by acetic acid: Mechanistic insights, industrial implications, and remediation approaches. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 437, 128326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2025.128326
12.     Gu, H., Li, W., Li, Z., Guo, T., Wen, H., & Wang, N. (2020). Leaching Behavior of Lithium from Bauxite Residue Using Acetic Acid. Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration, 37(2), 443-451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-020-00181-1
13.     He, L. P., Sun, S. Y., Mu, Y. Y., Song, X.-F., & Yu, J. G. (2017). Recovery of Lithium, Nickel, Cobalt, and Manganese from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries Using L-Tartaric Acid as a Leachant. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 5(1), 714-721. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b02056
14.     Kasri, M. A., Halizan, M. Z. M., Harun, I., Bahrudin, F. I., Daud, N., Aizamddin, M. F., ... & Mahat, M. M. (2024). Addressing preliminary challenges in upscaling the recovery of lithium from spent lithium ion batteries by the electrochemical method: a review. RSC Advances, 14(22), 15515-15541. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4RA00972J
15.     Kaunda, R. B. (2020). Potential environmental impacts of lithium mining. Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law, 38(3), 237-244. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646811.2020.1754596
16.     Liu, K., Liu, L., Tan, Q., & Li, J. (2021). Selective extraction of lithium from a spent lithium iron phosphate battery by mechanochemical solid-phase oxidation. Green Chemistry, 23(3), 1344-1352. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0gc03683h
17.     Lee, C. K., & Rhee, K. I. (2003). Reductive leaching of cathodic active materials from lithium ion battery wastes. Hydrometallurgy, 68(1-3), 5-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-386X(02)00167-6
18.     Mata, M., & Hlaváček, P. (2024). Lithium Mining as a Tool for Economic and Energy Transformation of Region: Reflections on Policies, Processes and Communities. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 14(6), 46-54. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.17052
19.     Musariri, B., Akdogan, G., Dorfling, C., & Bradshaw, S. (2019). Evaluating organic acids as alternative leaching reagents for metal recovery from lithium ion batteries. Minerals Engineering, 137, 108-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2019.03.027
20.     Nadimi, H., & Jalalian Karazmoudeh, N. (2020). Leaching of Co, Mn and Ni Using H2O2 in Sulfuric Acid Medium from Mobile Phone LIBs. Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series D, 101(1), 111-116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40033-020-00221-6
21.     Partinen, J., Halli, P., Wilson, B. P., & Lundström, M. (2023). The impact of chlorides on NMC leaching in hydrometallurgical battery recycling. Minerals Engineering, 202, 108244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2023.108244
22.     Periasamy, P., Kalaiselvi, N., & Kim, H. S. (2007). High Voltage and High Capacity Characteristics of LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 Cathode for Lithium Battery Applications. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 2(9), 68 689-699.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S1452-3981(23)17105-7
23.     Prziwara, P., Hamilton, L. D., Breitung-Faes, S., & Kwade, A. (2018). Impact of grinding aids and process parameters on dry stirred media milling. Powder Technology, 335, 114-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2018.05.021
24.     Rowlands, S. A., Hall, A. K., McCormick, P. G., Street, R., Hart, R. J., Ebell, G. F., & Donecker, P. (1994). Destruction of toxic materials. Nature, 367(6460), 223-223. https://doi.org/10.1038/367223a0
25.     Ruberti, M. (2024). Pathways to greener primary lithium extraction for a really sustainable energy transition: Environmental challenges and pioneering innovations. Sustainability, 17(1), 160. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010160
26.     Salari, H. (2021). Optimization Study of Nickel Leaching from Used Catalysts and Investigation of Nickel Separation by Precipitation. Journal of Advanced Materials and Technologies, 9(4), 71-77. https://doi.org/10.30501/jamt.2020.232659.1093
27.     Shafagati, M., Babapoor, A., & Bamdezh, M. (2024). Enhancing Car Battery Energy Efficiency with Phase Change Material Nanocomposites: A Concise Review. Journal of Renewable Energy and Environment, 11(1), 74-88. https://doi.org/10.30501/jree.2023.388891.1563
28.     Sun, L., & Qiu, K. (2011). Vacuum pyrolysis and hydrometallurgical process for the recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 194, 378-384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.07.114
29.     Takacova, Z., Havlik, T., Kukurugya, F., & Orac, D. (2016). Cobalt and lithium recovery from active mass of spent Li-ion batteries: Theoretical and experimental approach. Hydrometallurgy, 163, 9-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2016.03.007
30.     Tyunina, M., Levoska, J., Pacherova, O., Kocourek, T., & Dejneka, A. (2022). Strain enhancement due to oxygen vacancies in perovskite oxide films. Journal of Materials Chemistry C, 10(17), 6770-6777. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1TC04969K
31.     Vieceli, N., Benjamasutin, P., Promphan, R., Hellstrom, P., Paulsson, M., & Petranikova, M. (2023). Recycling of lithium-ion batteries: effect of hydrogen peroxide and a dosing method on the leaching of LCO, NMC oxides, and industrial black mass. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 11(26), 9662-9673. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c01238
32.     Wang, K., Zhang, G., & Luo, M. (2022a). Recovery of Valuable Metals from Cathode—Anode Mixed Materials of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Organic Acids. Separations, 9(9), 259. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations9090259
33.     Wang, M., Liu, K., Yu, J., Zhang, C.-C., Zhang, Z., & Tan, Q. (2022b). Recycling spent lithium-ion batteries using a mechanochemical approach. Circular Economy, 1(2), 100012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cec.2022.100012
34.     Wang, M., Tan, Q., & Li, J. (2018). Unveiling the Role and Mechanism of Mechanochemical Activation on Lithium Cobalt Oxide Powders from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(22), 13136-13143. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b03469
35.     Wang, M., Tan, Q., Liu, L., & Li, J. (2021). Selective regeneration of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries using ionic substitution stimulated by mechanochemistry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 279, 123612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123612
36.     Wu, J., Xiao, L., Shen, L., Ran, J. J., Zhong, H., Zhu, Y. R., & Chen, H. (2024). Recent advancements in hydrometallurgical recycling technologies of spent lithium-ion battery cathode materials. Rare Metals, 43(3), 879-899. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12598-023-02437-3
37.     Xuan, W., de Souza Braga, A., & Chagnes, A. (2021a). Development of a Novel Solvent Extraction Process to Recover Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese, and Lithium from Cathodic Materials of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 10(1), 582-593. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c07109
38.     Xuan, W., de Souza Braga, A., Korbel, C., & Chagnes, A. (2021b). New insights in the leaching kinetics of cathodic materials in acidic chloride media for lithium-ion battery recycling. Hydrometallurgy, 204, 105705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2021.105705
39.     Xuan, W., Otsuki, A., & Chagnes, A. (2019). Investigation of the leaching mechanism of NMC 811 (LiNi 0.8 Mn 0.1 Co 0.1 O2) by hydrochloric acid for recycling lithium ion battery cathodes [10.1039/C9RA06686A]. RSC Advances, 9(66), 38612-38618. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9RA06686A
40.     Yang, K., Zhu, C., Li, J., Meng, B., Zhong, K., Huang, W., Yu, J., & Fang, Z. (2023). Electric field-assisted leaching of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries in a mixture of acetic acid and ascorbic acid. Hydrometallurgy, 221, 106152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2023.106152
41.     Yang, Y. N., Li, Y. X., Li, Y. Q., & Zhang, T. (2020). On-surface lithium donor reaction enables decarbonated lithium garnets and compatible interfaces within cathodes. Nature Communications, 11(1), 5519. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19417-1
42.     Yao, L., Yao, H., Xi, G., & Feng, Y. (2016). Recycling and synthesis of LiNi 1/3 Co 1/3 Mn 1/3 O 2 from waste lithium ion batteries using d, l-malic acid. Rsc Advances, 6(22), 17947-17954. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA25079J
43.     Yao, Y., Zhu, M., Zhao, Z., Tong, B., Fan, Y., & Hua, Z. (2018). Hydrometallurgical Processes for Recycling Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Critical Review. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 6(11), 13611-13627. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b03545
44.     Yi, A. F., Zhu, Z. W., Liu, Y. H., Zhang, J., Su, H., & Qi, T. (2021). Using highly concentrated chloride solutions to leach valuable metals from cathode-active materials in spent lithium-ion batteries. Rare Metals, 40(7), 1971-1978. https://doi.org/101007/s12598-020-01503-4
45.     Yu, H., So, Y. G., Kuwabara, A., Tochigi, E., Shibata, N., Kudo, T., ... & Ikuhara, Y. (2016). Crystalline grain interior configuration affects lithium migration kinetics in Li-rich layered oxide. Nano letters, 16(5), 2907-2915. https://doi.org/10.1149/ma2016-03/2/879
46.     Zhang, J., Ding, Y., Shi, H., Shao, P., Yuan, X., Hu, X., ... & Luo, X. (2024). Selective recycling of lithium from spent LiNixCoyMn1-x-yO2 cathode via constructing a synergistic leaching environment. Journal of Environmental Management, 352, 120021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120021
47.     Zhao, Q., Sun, K., Wang, X., Wang, Q., & Wang, J. (2024). Examining green-sustainable approaches for recycling of lithium-ion batteries. DeCarbon, 3, 100034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.decarb.2023.100034
48.     Zhong, Y. D., Zhao, X. B., & Cao, G. S. (2005). Characterization of solid-state synthesized pure and doped lithium nickel cobalt oxides. Materials Science and Engineering: B, 121(3), 248-254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2005.04.007
49.     Zuo, X., Xia, P., Li, H., Mao, W., & Bao, K. (2025). Fast and highly selective lithium leaching and regeneration of spent ternary cathode materials. Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry, 29(5), 1963-1973. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10008-024-06145-5
 
Journal of Advanced Materials and Technologies
Volume 14, Issue 3
Autumn 2025
Pages 27-47

  • Receive Date 20 September 2025
  • Revise Date 22 October 2025
  • Accept Date 27 December 2025